Philip G Kent
Assistant General Manager, Information Management
CSIRO Information Technology Services
Abstract:
In a period of considerable uncertainty and change, publishers and producers of electronic material are developing a diverse number of pricing formulae and charging mechanisms to market their products. The paper examines these pricing models, particularly for electronic journals. The pricing relationship with paper formats is important during the transition. However, research is progressing overseas (eg PEAK project) and new models of pricing are being proposed for the future. What are the options and how will they impact upon the customer base? Implications for the funding of electronic resources within and between organisations will also be explored.
Introduction
If we are on the cusp of the Information Age, get ready for a rough ride. The economics of information are dangerous in themselves and are made worse by those who believe that information is a public good and should be freely available to all.
Uren (1998)
The late 20th Century has been characterized by the increasing importance of knowledge and information. Buzz words such as the ÎInformation Societyâ, ÎKnowledge Workersâ and the ÎCybereconomyâ together with the growth of tertiary services industries compared with primary (eg agriculture) and secondary (eg manufacturing) industries evidence this trend.
Regardless of format, information is the currency of business today whether it is market intelligence, scientific research outcomes or interest rates. While content rather than format is the primary consideration for the user, the transition to electronic delivery creates many new opportunities and ways of working. It also alters the economics of the industry, the way that information is priced and packaged, and creates new opportunities and precipitates departures or declines in business opportunities for some industry participants.
Uren (1998) suggests that market forces will prevail. Others have suggested that more and more information will become free or enter the public domain through Web access. While it is difficult to predict the future, the inexorable rate of change means that we must begin to address these concepts if we are to be prepared for that future.
The Economics of Information
It is widely expected that a great deal of scholarly communication will move to an electronic format. The Internet offers much lower cost of reproduction and distribution than print, the scholarly community has excellent connectivity, and the current system of journal pricing seems to be too expensive. Each of these factors is helping to push journals from paper to electronic media.
Varian (1998)
Shapiro and Varian (1999) contend that while technology changes, economic laws do not. They highlight the contrast between the cost of creating, assembling and producing information and the cost of reproduction. Examples of this include the copying of multi-million dollar films onto video for a matter of cents and the low runon costs associated with printing additional books or journals.
The production lines in the information industry have high fixed costs but low marginal costs. In the publishing context this means that the infrastructure costs of gathering, editing, designing and producing the first copy is expensive while the cost of production of second and subsequent copies is minimal. Similar experience is found in the software industry. While this cost structure may be attractive to market entrants, it is important to remember that the fixed costs are invariably Îsunkâ and therefore lost if a sufficient market cannot be found. An implication of high fixed costs is the need to raise subscription prices to cover declines in subscription numbers (McCabe 1998).
Shapiro and Varian (1999) highlight the importance of this cost structure in determining price. They suggest that cost-based pricing is not possible when unit costs are low. In these cases, information goods are priced according to perceived consumer value.
A related issue is that Îthere are no natural limits to the production of additional copies of informationâ (Shapiro & Varian 1999). This is particularly the case in the electronic environment where access and delivery costs are negligible and there is little difference between delivering to a market of 10 or 10,000.
Encyclopaedia Britannica is one of the classic case studies cited in the management literature. They produced a highly priced, highly valued, printed product that maintained a small, niche market. It was well regarded and many of us will remember the parents who scrimped and saved to purchase the bound set of Britannica that held pride of place in the family home. Its perceived value was in educative benefit and the creation of opportunities for the next generation. The former Britannica distribution channels, the door to door and shopping centre sales staff, are now redundant because of electronic delivery.
Britannicaâs new market strategy is to pursue the low cost, mass market. The price has dropped considerably and they are aiming at widespread penetration of the home, educational and corporate markets. Another aspect of the encyclopaedia market is the role of competition.
Commodity information products (eg phone books, stock market information, maps) are often sold at their marginal cost (ie zero) via the Internet. Aside from commodity products, Shapiro and Varian argue that there are Îonly two sustainable structures for an information marketâ:
In the scholarly information sector, products are so differentiated that virtual monopolies reign. At CSIRO we constantly find ourselves Îover a barrelâ in negotiating with publishers for products that have no competition. Similarly the number of takeovers and mergers leading to the growth of large multinational conglomerates in the publishing industry (eg Reed-Elsevier) is consistent with the dominant firms model.
Bannerman (1998) suggests that the normal rules of supply and demand are not evident in the journals market, with price rises higher than inflation and other costs such as increasing page numbers, paper costs and exchange rates. McCabe (1998) conducted a study on behalf of the US Department of Justice that measures the impact of mergers on journal prices. He concluded that for journals produced by large commercial publishers, Îprices are indeed positively related to firm portfolio size, and that mergers result in significant price increasesâ. One of the questions associated with such studies is an understanding of monopoly, competition and the ability to substitute goods. McCabe asks Îdoesnât each unique journal title constitute a distinct market for the purposes of antitrust analysis?â
MacKie-Mason and Riveros (1997) argue that competition should ensure an efficient publishing industry with normal (not monopolistic) profits over time. They highlight the low barriers to entry and the few proprietary advantages to participation in the publishing industry. Economic theory suggests that when barriers to entry are low, higher than normal profits attract other companies to the market and further entrants will Îdrive returns down to a normal rateâ.
Useful work by King and Tenopir (1998) examines the cost structures of publishing, comparing print with electronic. Their study concludes that for a typical journal, fixed costs would decrease by 2% of the total with electronic production and distribution. They contend that savings to users would depend on the subscription base with a maximum decrease in subscription cost of 7.8% for journals with 500 subscribers and 41% for journals with 5,000 subscribers. King and Tenopir offer three models of electronic publishing for scientific scholarly journals that:
Print Related Pricing Models
Fixed costs dominate the production of academic journals; reduction in printing and distribution costs due to electronic distribution will have negligible effect on break-even prices.
Varian (1998)
The inevitability of electronic delivery has required publishers to experiment with the technology and to grapple with pricing models. So much about the long term impact on their fixed and variable costs is unknown. Understandably publishers have sought to maintain their revenue stream, to sustain their business during restructuring and technological change, and to ensure their place in the future market.
Against this background it is not surprising that, at least initially, publishers offer free access to electronic versions as an add on to the print subscription, or in some cases as a marketing exercise to whoever was interested. In other cases, the electronic version has been Îfreeâ with print but often with a price increase to the print version Îpresumably to cover the costâ (Goodman 1998).
Other publishers offer their electronic version at an optional surcharge on to the print subscription. In other words, the customer has a choice in subscribing to the electronic version.
Perhaps the most popular models at present are the option of electronic only at a slightly reduced price, print at the regular cost, and a combination price including a minimal add on cost to cover both formats. Goodman (1998), a librarian at Princeton University summarises the view that: Îthis is what I like to seeâ. He also offers a slight variation on the latter where both print and electronic are the same price.
Another model that capitalises on low variable costs and seeks to offer a marketing edge is the bundling of all titles within a publisherâs stable. In other words, institutions get electronic access to all titles from a publisher at a package rate not dissimilar from the cost of the subset titles taken in print originally.
The library market wants to choose between formats at an affordable price. This also provides greater flexibility during a transitional time when users are not yet comfortable with the perceived loss of highly regarded print journals. The element of choice is also important and the concept of Îunbundlingâ print plus electronic has gained recent popularity.
Bruce Heterick, Manager of Blackwellâs Electronic Services predicts two forms of unbundled access:
The library market has looked to electronic delivery to reduce costs and to facilitate greater access to information. Varianâs (1998) quote at the beginning of this section highlights the problem that while electronic delivery may reduce postage and distribution costs, the fixed costs of managing the editorial and refereeing process dominate the overall costs structures. Unless these costs can be reduced or spread across a wider customer base, prices are not likely to fall.
Other Pricing Issues and Models
The pricing models discussed are largely associated with individual subscriptions. At an organisational level, institutional or site licences have emerged, particularly for larger Îbundlesâ of titles. Scale economies have an influence and it is not surprising that this has extended into the growth of local and international consortia licences. According to Gammon (1998): ÎConsortia have become an accepted means for many libraries to provide more and better resources for users for the same or lower cost.â In our own region, CAUL (Council of Australian University Librarians), CONZUL (Council of New Zealand University Librarians) and CSIRO have formed the CEIRC (CAUL/CONZUL/CSIRO Electronic Information Resources Committee) consortium to broker deals on a broader scale. The group will be transacting a number of negotiations under a ÎMarket Dayâ umbrella during this Information Online and On Disc 99 conference. Steve OâConnorâs paper during this conference will highlight the consortium approach.
In the United States and Europe, the growth of various consortia with diverse structures, governance, and funding has been so great that the International Coalition of Library Consortia (ICOLC) has emerged to coordinate mutual interests. One such development has been the ICOLC Statement of Current Perspective and Preferred Practices for the Selection and Purchase of Electronic Information (1). The statement highlights issues such as contracts, pricing, access, archiving, systems, licences, content, management data, use, and authentication. CAUL and CSIRO have endorsed the ICOLC statement and CEIRC has produced an Australasian version that takes into account local conditions (2).
One of the pricing principles endorsed by ICOLC is Îunbundlingâ, the ability to obtain fair and equitable pricing on any format.
On the other hand, Bannerman (1998) suggests that bundling around logical subject areas is successful, as evidenced by Ovid Core Collections. Some librarians have suggested that this approach is dangerous because users may believe that the collection is all that is available and miss vital information in other sources.
An important consideration in moving to electronic delivery is ongoing access to data. Archiving and access to information in the future, when perhaps the library no longer subscribes to the title are key concerns for librarians. Where the data resides (ie at the vendors, customers or third parties site) is relevant. Most electronic information is leased and if customers want perpetual access this must generally be negotiated at a premium price, thereby affecting the pricing model.
Site licence definitions have also caused considerable consternation in the Australian higher education sector where mergers have resulted in multiple campuses and institutions with a wide geographic spread. Extension of education markets into Asia and growth of distance education has created further issues. Some vendors offer pricing models based on IP class licences and while attractive to some customers, the approach generally does not offer the flexibility required by many institutions. Pricing based on staff numbers, or equivalent full time (EFT) student numbers is also offered by some vendors. This raises issues of what constitutes Îstaffâ and organisations and can result in protracted negotiations. For example in the case of Îstaffâ, trends towards use of contractors and sessional staff need to be accommodated.
Free Content?
Mass market information produced at low marginal costs is often available free or at low cost. According to Uren (1998): ÎGiving something to 1000 consumers is no more expensive than giving it to just oneâ. There is a trend towards bundling such content together with other hardware and software offerings. The decrease in entry prices for printers and mobile telephones with a guaranteed ongoing revenue stream from consumable sales (print cartridges) or ongoing use (call charges) provides a parallel.
Content continues to grow in importance as demonstrated by Microsoftâs repeated attempts in recent years to purchase the attractive Lonely Planet publishing business. Of considerable interest was the announcement in October 1998 of the Encarta World English Dictionary, a collaborative venture between Microsoft, Bloomsbury, St Martinâs and Pan Macmillan presses (Blumenstyk 1998).
In September 1998, the Dow Jones newswires and Associated Press reported speculation that Microsoft and Reed Elsevier were exploring a deal that could Îinclude a takeover bid by the software giantâ (Case 1998a). The deal was denied on both sides, and many commentators have suggested that such a move would be unlikely.
Bannerman (1998) offers arguments for free access to online journals such as:
He also suggest that pitfalls need to be avoided:
Considerable interest has been raised by reports of success of the Florida Entomologist (Walker 1998b) and the work of SPARC (Scholarly Publishing and Academic Resources Coalition) to develop Îhigh quality and yet economical alternatives to existing high-priced publications and to foster expanded competition in scholarly communicationâ (Case 1998b). Funded through page charges, managed under the Îhonest brokerâ societal model and accessed through the WWW, Walker (1998b) argues that ÎWeb distribution of journal articles costs less than one-half of 1% as much as traditional distribution. Despite the page charges, Walker argues that they are considerably less than current page charges, reprints, and library costs (subscriptions, facilities and services).
Such a re-engineering of the scholarly communication process will require considerable time and effort for the interests of authors, academics, researchers, institutions, librarians and scholarly societies to coalesce. Resolution of intellectual property rights and copyright issues in particular are crucial to this change in approach.
While the likelihood of expensive academic journals becoming available free in the near future is slim, there certainly are many examples of less expensive full text journals becoming available free or at low cost. Journal costs would only diminish if major restructuring occurs in the scholarly communication process.
PEAK Project
The PEAK (Pricing Electronic Access to Knowledge) Project, based at the University of Michigan, is a working electronic journal delivery service as well as a field trial involving various pricing mechanisms (3). The project team involves economists, technologists, and librarians. Elsevier Science collaborates in the project that follows on from the work of the TULIP initiative. MacKie-Mason and Jankovich (1997) reported that: ÎThe primary research objective is to generate rich empirical evidence on user behavior and provider results with various bundling schemes and price levelsâ.
The University of Michigan hosts Elsevierâs 1100 journals for their University clients, 10 other universities, 2 corporate libraries and 3 other libraries are reported to be in the process of joining the project. According to Wendy Lougee, Project Director:
PEAK is exploring several pricing dimensions, including different product bundles as well as nonlinear pricing opportunities afforded by electronic access. While traditional journals have familiar bundling conventions (eg articles bundled into issues, bundled into volumes within a specific title), electronic access allows us to conceive of new types of bundles and pricing options for those bundles.
Three product and pricing options are being tested:
One interesting aspect of the first and third options is that access to articles is for the life of the project. In other words once an article is purchased it is available at no extra charge to all authorised users within the institution.
Lougee (1998) explains that:
Nonlinear pricing refers to a broad class of schemes in which revenue increases nonlinearly. Like bundling, nonlinear pricing may fit well in the world of electronic publishing since recovery of fixed publishing costs can be spread over more revenue-generating products due to the new services that can be created. PEAKâs nonlinear pricing includes a participation fee, followed by product charges for the various options purchased.
The participation fee provides unlimited access to the database and free access to specific years of back data. Detailed usage data is provided to participants and higher level data is provided to Elsevier.
Participation involves real costs, although some participants are only given selected pricing options from which to choose. However it is possible to mix models (eg subscribe to core titles and pre-pay for bundles of articles from non-core titles). Participation also involves the retention of paper journals for the duration of the project. This was a disincentive for some potential members.
PEAK Project Findings
The project is due for completion in August 1999 so it is premature to report conclusively at this time. However, some interesting reports and participant observations have appeared recently.
One of the most difficult problems is to determine real use and value of specific expensive titles to an institution. Electronic delivery does provide valuable usage data to assist in decision making. Vanderbilt University Librarian and Peak Project participant, Paul Gherman is reported in Library Journal Digital (1998) to say: ÎWe might get some real information about whatâs being readâ. One finding to date has been that the average article purchased at Vanderbilt University through PEAK is read 2.5 times (Kiernan 1998).
To date, trial participants are showing Îunexpected interestâ in buying electronic access at the article level (Kiernan 1998). The literature reports many recent projects where document delivery has replaced subscription as the information acquisition mode. The cost of $US 4.56 per article under the bundled option through PEAK is considerably less than commercial document delivery suppliers, who presumably the publishers would seek to circumvent. The downside of this option is the need to estimate usage in advance, although Mignon Adams of the University of Sciences, Philadelphia likens this risk to unused articles or issues in print journal subscriptions (Kiernan 1998).
Concern has been expressed about the possible misuse of project data by Elsevier. Karen Hunter of Elsevier states that the company does not have access to raw data from the project and that the project team is welcome to share project outcomes with other journal publishers. Others are sceptical that publishers would implement a pricing system that would increase user access without charging more revenue (Kiernan 1998).
According to Mackie-Mason and Jankovick (1997), Elsevier Science intends to consider the following differentials in future electronic pricing models:
Before PEAK data had been collected or analysed, MacKie-Mason and Riveros (1997) concluded that electronic access provides considerable Îspaceâ for product bundling and pricing structures. New pricing structures with greater flexibility for different market sectors should result. Otherwise publishers are at risk of starving themselves out of business, as evidenced by the continual stream of paper journal cancellations that have taken place in this country in recent years.
Future Pricing Models?
The PEAK Project and other recent experiences suggest a trend towards pricing and purchasing at the article level. This has become known as the Îpay-per-viewâ approach.
Electronic commerce will simplify the mechanics of purchasing at this level, although it is likely that the bundling together of packages at more attractive rates will predominate for larger customers. The growth of the Web as a marketing tool complements this and allows content providers to target potential markets in a sophisticated manner. For example, I purchased a book from amazon.com recently. I was automatically alerted to a ranked list of books that had also been purchased by customers of the book I had chosen. They were relevant and I purchased an additional book!
Pricing on a title subscription basis may continue for those who must see the entire issue of pivotal titles in their field. This is very much the experience of colleagues in some CSIRO science disciplines. However I expect this will not prevail as the major pricing mechanism as in the paper environment.
Derek Leebaertâs (1998) book describes an information economy where information can be organised and interrogated quickly using electronic agents or avatars (ie meta-agents). By 2005, expert assistants ö PASHAs (Personal Application-Specific Hyper-intelligent Agents) will assist individuals and organisations to manage the complexity of electronic life.
The growth of more sophisticated current awareness and alerting tools, and trends towards multi-disciplinary research suggest that the market will seek to purchase information from a wider array of sources and that the traditional subscription to specific a title will decline. Representatives of Elsevier Science suggested to CSIRO recently that the predominant production format in 3 years time is expected to be electronic. The likely outcome is that a customer with a preference for print will probably pay a premium for that format.
What pricing models are used in associated information services? Consumption based charges are the norm in the telecommunications industry including Internet traffic charges. Local Internet Service Providers (ISPs) generally offer a startup package including usage to an agreed ceiling (eg number of hours) and pay-as-you-go additional usage.
Leebaert (1998) raises the increase of advertising as a method of funding entertainment and information services on the Web. He suggests:
While some Web sites have resorted to subscription schemes, others have begun to sell advertising space within their sites. As advertising on the Internet grows, more interesting content will likely become available, which in turn, attract new viewers to this medium and therefore attract more advertisers.
Advertising may be anathema to the academic community and contrary to the ethos of quality scholarly journals. Nevertheless this revenue stream may reduce pricing to the consumer and ensure access to greater information at an affordable cost.
Will the SPARC approach succeed and are we likely to see a large number of free journals available? Certainly many papers are being submitted to pre-print servers such as Los Alamos (Walker 1998a) and scientists speak positively about WWW access to papers of their colleagues. According to Walker: ÎAlthough most of the papers are eventually published, their e-prints are available more easily and probably consulted more frequentlyâ. The collegial nature of society publishing is attractive and knowledge of professional reputations within societies would assist the refereeing process.
Sosteric (1998) argues that one of the most significant barriers to independent scholarly publication is the work involved. He says:
From our 1998 perspective, the 1996 vision of a future communication system where scholarly skywriting is conducted in a low-cost, collectivist manner by the scholars themselves now seems largely a hopeless fantasy.
I recall the mid-1980s when a number of societies transferred publication responsibility to commercial publishers to reduce the burden on a decreasing number of office bearers and to put their publications on a commercial footing. Costs and labour can certainly be reduced through technology, and lower standards of house styles. It would also be important that the cost structures be established to cover the true costs of the publication process. This approach will succeed if the societies have the vision, enthusiasm and resources to sustain it.
The critical point to remember about free access in the all-electronic future is that the total cost will be much less, and it will be borne by the same parties and institutions. The principal difference will be that most of the money will no longer flow through the institutionsâ librariesâ (Walker 1998a).
In the language of marketing, what channels will be utilised in the electronic environment? What will be the role of subscription agents and aggregators if subscriptions are no longer the predominant pricing model? The dynamic certainly changes with electronic delivery and accounting, and the reasons for using traditional subscription agents alter. The question remains however, what value-added services will be required in the future and what new business opportunities will emerge?
Without being disloyal to their firm, one subscription agent representative admitted that this is a key strategic question for their firm. One university librarian commented recently about the change in vendor relationships. In the past we received visits from representatives of major subscription agents but now receive direct approaches from representatives of the major publishers as well, she observed. Electronic delivery increases the opportunities for publishers to deal directly without intermediaries.
On the other hand, scale economies and the need to manage a large portfolio of publishers and information sources attracts the library and institutional market to the aggregation services offered by vendors as well as the consortia approach. Within consortia, the management services required is another consideration, hence the announcement in 1998 of the appointment of Swets and the University of Manchester as the managing agents for the NESLI consortium in the UK higher education sector. (4)
Funding
Funding could be the subject for another paper! There are many questions such as who pays, how the costs are apportioned and what is the impact on the organisation? There are also issues of power and control. A pay-per-view approach to purchasing could easily translate to a user pays option. This approach has been the norm for online searching charges from host services in many institutions.
Some have suggested that charging back to users may result in reduced consumption or use of information. What if the costs are too prohibitive? Varian (1998) asks: ÎWill academic administrators really pay subscription rates implying costs per reading of several hundred dollarsâ. Under the paper subscription model, many organisations are perhaps unknowingly spending this amount per article already.
While costs may be apportioned according to past expenditure on paper journals, inevitably costs will be reapportioned over time, based on usage data. This is likely to continue on an annual basis.
Various mechanisms are entertained to share costs within institutions. Weightings for category of users (eg undergraduate, masters, doctoral, subject disciplines, research vs teaching vs technical staff) are often employed within academic institutions. Under the consortia model, there are also many options and debates concerning how the costs are apportioned. The consortia approach is only attractive if it reduces costs for all participating institutions.
As with pricing models, funding methodologies are likely to change during the transition also. In the Australian and UK higher education experience, Îoff the topâ government funding was provided for the initial purchase of shared electronic datasets and services. Within institutions, it is often possible to obtain Îonce offâ corporate funds as part of the move to electronic delivery.
It is clear that costs may shift within organisations. As long as the bottom line for the organisation is equal to or lower than the previous spend there should be little dispute. There is a worry that costs will blow out if end user have unlimited access to electronic services. In my own organisation I know that scientists are asked to do many new and different tasks like marketing and operate under tight time pressures. I do not believe they have time to Îpig outâ unnecessarily. Or if they do, and find a vital piece of information that creates many new research opportunities, is that wrong?
It is also important to consider the true costs in the equation. The move to electronic will have an impact on shelf space, processing and staff time in libraries, for example. Kohl (1998) speaking about the decline of interlibrary loans at OhioLINK, notes that Îwe have substituted joint ownership for ILL for journal articlesâ.
While politics may play a critical role in deciding who funds, the problems are not insurmountable. They will require discussion, negotiation and decision making.
Conclusion
The information industry is complex and subject to considerable change. Electronic delivery creates new opportunities to package and market information. A variety of economic models are relevant and influence the ways that industry participants operate. New market opportunities are emerging but it is possible that traditional delivery channels will disappear if they do not adapt to the new environment.
New pricing models have evolved from subscriptions to traditional paper journals. This has been appropriate for both the buyers and sellers of electronic information products, providing time to experiment with and implement new approaches. It is likely that many different pricing options will be offered and that vendors will customise pricing options according to the customer. While subscriptions for print and electronic are being Îunbundledâ, other types of Îbundlingâ along consortia, publisher or subject lines are already available in response to customer demand.
Preliminary feedback from the PEAK Project supports the view that customers will prefer to pay-per-view for information used to support the academic or research process. A key driver is the need for libraries to reduce or at least sustain their current financial expenditure. Customers are looking to receive financial relief through estimated savings associated with electronic delivery.
More and more information is becoming Îfreeâ. WWW delivery and a shift in cost structures are assisting this process. If the learned societies regain control of the scholarly communication process, costs structures may be further altered and prices decrease. However before this can be achieved, intellectual property ownership issues requires resolution. It will also involve considerable lobbying and discussion outside library circles and requires a holistic understanding of real costs.
Nevertheless, market forces and the commercial interests are likely to prevail. Price will always be influenced by perceptions of value and what the market will bear. Will knowledge of the true costs change the scholarly communication process?
Changes in pricing structures are already causing customers to rethink internal funding and procedural issues. User pays is a likely outcome although a transition approach to funding is likely to be required. Electronic commerce can facilitate the level of transactions and accounting. The consortia approach to purchasing will continue to be attractive as long as each member obtains receives financial benefit.
If the standard unit of information acquisition is the article rather than title level, what impact will this have on the publishing sector? Demand for articles may influence author offerings. What will happen to articles or subject areas that donât sell and how will this impact upon the research market? Some would argue that pure research could be compromised and that commercial interests could have too much influence.
While electronic delivery seems to offer more questions and answers, it will enable us to measure usage in a more scientific and realistic manner. This should facilitate decision making and result in a better understanding of the economics of information for both the buyer and seller.
In the midst of all the technology-related change and confusion in todayâs electronic marketplace, one thing is certain. After all the fiber lines have been laid, the satellites have settled into their orbits, and the digital dust particles have cleared, the roles and relationships or producers and customers will have undergone a startling metamorphosis.
Alberthal (1998)
Notes
References
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Bannerman, Ian (1998) ÎPricing on-line journalsâ Serials v11 n1 March pp23-26
Blumenstyk, Goldie (1998) ÎPublishers and Microsoft gather contributions for a ÎWorld English Dictionaryââ The Chronicle: Information Technology News October 2
Case, Mary (1998a) ÎReed Elsevier and Kluwer Announcementsâ sent to Association of Research Libraries (ARL) Directors list, forwarded to The Consortium List by Margaret Landesman on 5 October 1998.
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Walker, Thomas J. (1998b) ÎThe future of scientific journals: free access or pay per viewâ American Entomologist text available at: http://csssrvr.entnem.ufl.edu/~walker/fewww/aecom3.html
Wood, Elizabeth J. (1998) ÎPrix fixe or a la carte; the package dealâ Library Acquisitions: Practice & Theory v22 n3 Fall pp367-369.